The Strategy Plan, on the other hand, needs to be formulated from as early in the project as possible. Resources, finance, procurement, risk, technical issues and quality requirements will all be covered along with any other issues required to describe how the project is to be managed effectively. Value may be defined in terms of worth. Another definition is the quotient: performance divided by cost. Value Management is concerned with the broader optimisation of strategic issues, generation of alternative courses of action and assessment of options.
Generally Value Management consists of a series of structured workshops, facilitated by a value management specialist. Risks are present in all projects, whatever their size or complexity and whatever industry or business sector.
Risks exist as a consequence of uncertainty. Project risk management recognises a formal approach to the process as opposed to an intuitive approach.
Risks, once identified, assessed and. This may be achieved by developing either immediate or contingency responses to the identified risks. Such responses may remove, reduce, avoid, transfer, or accept the risks or lead to the abandonment of the project. While risks are, according to the dictionary, associated with the possibility of failure, they may also be associated with opportunities. The usual definition of a risk in project management is that the risk is the product of the probability of an event occurring times its impact if it did.
Risk management should balance the upside opportunities with downside risks, doing so in an open, clear and formal manner. Quality refers, obviously, to more than just technical performance. Quality Planning is the preparation, checking, and recording of actions that are necessary to achieve the standard of product or service that the customer and legislation requires.
Quality Control is the set of processes for planning and monitoring the project to ensure that quality is being achieved. Quality Assurance is the set of processes and procedures required to demonstrate that the work has been performed according to the quality plan.
It also entails proper appreciation of the legal and corporate environmental control and reporting procedures required for the project. This section includes many of the core tools traditionally associated with project management. A broad view of what is meant by Control is taken. Planning, measuring, monitoring and taking corrective action are all usually included in the Control cycle.
Monitoring and reporting then relates actual performance against these plans. Action may be needed to ensure performance is maintained. Re-planning may be necessary to ensure the project is accomplished successfully. All these together constitute control. The heart of a planning and monitoring system is prediction and trend analysis based on reliable performance information.
The project management professional should monitor the project against its baseline plan and Key Performance Indicators. A fundamental aspect of effective project planning, and therefore of effective project management, is the processes of defining the scope of the project and of breaking this into manageable pieces of work work packages. The Scope definition describes what the product deliverables of the project are. The WBS is a task oriented detailed breakdown, which defines the work packages and tasks at a level above that defined in the networks and schedules.
Scheduling consists of activity definition, activity sequencing, activity duration estimating, schedule development, and schedule control. Phasing is more concerned with the strategic pacing of the project and the overlapping between different activities or blocks of activities.
Resource Management also significantly affects this item. Resource Management typically covers resource allocation and its impact on schedules and budgets, and resource levelling and smoothing. Budgeting and Cost Management is the process of. Successful cost management on a project needs to be forward-looking. Changes may be proposed by any of the stakeholders associated with the project. Change may be unavoidable or highly desirable; it may equally be unnecessary and not useful.
It is essential that any proposed change to the project be formally controlled. The project management team, with the support, as appropriate, of relevant stakeholders including the sponsor should therefore review changes fully before their approval and actioning. Their impact on all aspects of the project should be carefully assessed. All approved changes should be fully documented and efficiently communicated. The project must have an effective change control system in operation and the project management professional should be familiar with its operation.
Control Earned Value Management is the process of representing physical progress achieved on the project in terms of a cost based measure i. Various rules and techniques are used to represent the value of work performed to date as a proportion of the total project value. Structured estimates-to-complete are also given through Earned Value based upon accurate assessment of status-to-date.
Projects generate and absorb significant quantities of information. It is important that the project has an effective information management system. Information management covers the management of the systems, activities, and data that allow information in a project to be effectively acquired, stored, processed, accessed, communicated, and archived. There should be a valid audit trail of this communication process.
Document Management is another term frequently used in projects to cover aspects of Information Management. Generally modern information and computer based technology can significantly impact the effective management of information. Ensuring a comprehensive, valuable IS — Information Systems — plan is available for the project as a whole should be an important responsibility of project management.
Information distribution involves making needed information available to project stakeholders in a timely manner. It includes implementing communication management plans as well as responding to unexpected requests for information. Effectively managing the technical definition of the project can make an enormous impact on its potential success. This is usually true even of seemingly non-technical projects such as some organisational change projects: all usually involve some definition of what has to be accomplished and how things are to work.
Generally the technical base is both significant in size and importance. To a significant extent it will also influence how it will be made. It will obviously also determine extensively how it will be used. Many of these topics are covered explicitly in other sections of this Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge. Requirements should be comprehensive and clear, well structured, traceable and testable.
Requirements should give rise to clearly specified project deliverables. The delivery of these deliverables should be tested against the original set of requirements. Any changes to the initial requirements should be traceable i.
The requirements definition should be progressively updated as the project develops. The estimate usually begins as a quantification or measure of resource units required, which can then be translated into a financial budget using rate tables or actual costs.
This topic is closely related to budgeting and cost management. Integrated Logistics Support. At the technical level, value may be defined in terms of worth or the quotient: performance divided by cost where high performance and low cost are considered good value and low performance and high cost are bad value. Value Engineering is the structured application of a series of proven techniques during the phases of a project when products are being developed.
Considered, rightly, as an attitude of mind, formal Value Engineering involves a formal approach to the improvement of product solutions; it is achieved through teamwork in a workshop environment, using a job plan based on problem-solving and creative thinking. Technical There are considerable benefits in both modelling the design and the project deliverables as early in the project life cycle and as comprehensively as possible. The design and the evolving solution should be tested against the requirements as it develops.
Testing can take a variety of forms and should be carried out effectively against the requirements definition. Configuration Management is the process of ensuring that the project delivers everything it is supposed to — physical products and assets, quality products, documentation, deliverables etc. All project management deliverables assets, documents, products should be controlled such that there is complete assurance on delivery integrity. Commercial issues may drive the conduct of the project.
The business case defines why the project is required and what the change is to be. The business case might also include information on the competitive impact, resource requirements, organisational impacts, key performance indicators and critical success factors of the project and its outcome. The impact of these factors, together with the results of other forms of appraisal, such as environmental appraisal, social impact, etc, should be periodically assessed during the course of the project.
The same discipline should apply for supplier type companies considering bidding for work on a project as much as for project sponsors. Bidders should assess the business case of bidding for and winning or losing the project. Upon completion of the project there should be a formal evaluation of whether the project achieved its stated business benefits.
The do-nothing option should always be considered. There will be occasions when the investment appraisal will show that the change will not represent value for money within the requirements defined. Marketing is the process of matching the abilities of an organisation with the existing and future needs of its customers, to the greatest benefit of both parties.
Marketing is often of significant importance to project management professionals in that they can be involved in securing new business. This activity, important in itself, can also interact with the way a project is conceived and conducted.
Sales is the process of getting someone to buy the product or service being offered by the organisation. Some project management professionals can find themselves having to sell services or products.
This too can significantly affect the way a project is conceived and managed. The project management team should know, and be sensitive to, the impact of how the project is financed and the particular requirements imposed on the project by its financing.
Bonding requirements financial, performance, etc should be understood where appropriate. Currency fluctuations may be important where some or all funding is in foreign currency. Procurement is the process of acquiring new services or products.
It covers the financial appraisal of the options available, development of the procurement or acquisition strategy, preparation of contract documentation, selection and acquisition of suppliers, pricing, purchasing, and administration of contracts. It may also extend to storage, logistics, inspection, expediting, transportation, and handling of materials and supplies. It may cover all members of the supply chain.
Operations and maintenance, for example, needs to be supported through a supply chain management process. For many projects, procurement can represent the highest percentage of expenditure. It is essential that value for money is realised. All major procurements should be subject to careful appraisal and management.
As with the business case, all feasible options should be considered. A procurement strategy should be prepared very early in the project. This will often stem from a policy defined externally to the project — for example the urgency of the project.
London: Pearson. Dent, F. Influencing, skills and techniques for business success. London: Palgrave Macmillan. General There are many theories of leadership and the subject can be approached in a variety of ways. One simple approach to understanding different leadership styles is the comparison of transactional leaders and transformational leaders. Transactional leaders ensure that requirements are agreed and that the rewards and penalties for achievement, or lack of it, are understood.
In contrast, transformational leaders do everything possible to help people succeed in their own right and become leaders themselves. They help those people to transform themselves and achieve more than was intended or even thought possible. By definition, the P3 environment is one of change. New teams come together to achieve objectives and are disbanded when the work is complete.
As a consequence, the P3 manager should focus on different aspects of leadership throughout the P3 life cycle and set the pace accordingly. Early phases require expertise in influencing stakeholders and creating vision but may need a more transactional style with the P3 team.
As the work progresses, the leadership focus shifts to maintaining momentum, responding to change and applying a more transformational approach. The position of leader is granted by followers who make the decision to follow.
That decision will be influenced by the leader using an appropriate style of leadership that takes account of both the situation and the readiness of people to follow. The motivation of individuals is the subject of many theoretical models, such as those proposed by Maslow, Herzberg and McGregor. To enable continual improvement, lessons learned will be shared and success celebrated.
They should be aware of how their authority will be perceived by stakeholders at different phases of the life cycle. The authority required may be based on expert knowledge, or may originate from other forms of influence such as gaining trust, confidence, inspiration and the development of teamwork.
Leaders must adapt their approach according to the needs of those being led. Leadership should be exercised at all levels within projects, programmes and portfolios and can be exercised by all or some of the team.
For instance, team members will provide leadership to their colleagues and this has a positive impact on the organisation. Project The role of leadership in a project is to promote the project objectives, encourage positive relationships, support effective teamwork, raise morale, and empower and inspire individuals.
Leaders require followers, but leaders must also themselves be able to follow. Many projects will be part of a programme or portfolio that also has its leader. A project manager will need to be a strong leader but must also be able to be an effective team member in respect of the programme or portfolio. Most projects will use resources from the host organisation.
These team members will come from functional departments which have their own managers who also provide leadership.
The environment where individuals are simultaneously part of a project team and a functional team is called matrix management. A pragmatic project manager must balance the theories of leadership with the practical need to deliver the project objectives and the limits on their authority to lead.
A vision is more difficult to communicate than a set of product specifications. A programme manager is less likely to gain credibility and authority through technical expertise than through visionary leadership that is visible to all programme and project team members.
The programme manager needs to develop strong leadership skills to establish credibility with a team of committed leaders in their own right. This is especially true where actions that best serve the programme are in conflict with what a project manager believes are in the best interests of the project or a business change manager believes are not in the best interests of business-as-usual.
The fact that a programme implements change means that some of those directly affected by the programme will be affected in ways that they do not see as personally beneficial. Leadership will be needed to champion the organisational benefits of the programme and influence others to accept, if not actively support, the necessary change.
Leadership must ensure that there is a mechanism for prioritisation and balancing of resources. It must maintain clear decision-making and accountability. Above all, the commitment of senior management to the changes implemented by the portfolio will clearly reflect good leadership. The portfolio manager will reinforce the strategy through other leaders who are involved in the portfolio. Strong leadership at the portfolio level will set the scene for leadership throughout the component programmes, projects and relevant areas of business-as-usual.
Lewis, J. Project leadership. General Negotiations can take place at any time in a project, programme or portfolio and may be formal or informal in nature. Formal negotiations are typically with providers on such issues as agreeing contracts.
Informal negotiations include discussions to resolve conflict, or discussions to obtain internal resources. Negotiation skills are used in many areas of P3 management such as conflict management, contract management, requirements management and stakeholder management. Competitive negotiation implies getting the best deal regardless of the needs and interests of the other party.
This form of negotiation can easily become a battle where the winner takes all. While competitive negotiation should be avoided, it may not always be possible. This approach tends to produce the best results, helps build long-term relationships and minimises the opportunity for conflict. Set goals and ensure that they accord with the tolerances which have been agreed. Investigate relevant social conventions if planning to negotiate with people from different cultures.
Project Project managers need to apply negotiation skills throughout the project life cycle. Early on in a project, as requirements are being captured and initial plans produced, the project manager may need to balance the time, cost, quality and scope requirements of the project and negotiate with stakeholders.
As the project progresses, conflicts will arise. The project manager will need to negotiate solutions to conflicts, whether they are informal or contractual.
In some environments, there may be specialist support available. It is important for project managers to know when to ask for help from, for example, the HR or legal departments within the host organisation. The programme manager must understand when to allow negotiations to be handled at project level and when to take responsibility at programme level.
A balance must be struck between removing autonomy from project managers and gaining an advantage by collectively negotiating on behalf of the programme as a whole. A programme includes project outputs that impose change on business-as-usual.
This will inevitably cause situations where a negotiated solution is needed. A programme is more likely to have access to specialist negotiators, but programme managers should still be skilled negotiators in their own right.
Programme managers and programme sponsors are the visible leadership of the programme and may need to become personally involved to achieve a successful conclusion. Portfolio A portfolio will encompass the broadest range of negotiation scenarios and will need access to various specialists to negotiate HR, legal and internal issues. Further reading Fisher, R. Building agreement: using emotions as you negotiate. London: Random House. Fisher, R. Getting to yes: negotiating an agreement without giving in.
General A team consists of a group of people, committed to a common goal that no one individual can achieve alone. The focus of teams and teamwork is on mutual accountability and performance. The concept of teamwork presents itself differently across the projects, programmes and portfolios as the make-up and environment of the teams vary.
Within the P3 environment there will be a hierarchy of different teams. The obvious example is a project team within a programme, a programme team within a portfolio and the overall portfolio team. Regardless of whether they are involved in team selection, P3 managers should consider a number of factors when developing a team.
Individuals will have different skills and personalities. They may come from different cultures and working environments. The team may be physically co-located or work virtually across different time zones. The impact of all these factors on teamworking needs to be considered. The establishment of a team will initially involve the selection of individuals based on their skills, behaviours and attitudes.
Teamworking is most effective when people with complementary skills and behaviours are committed to a common objective and method of working. Models such as Belbin and Margerison-McCann illustrate how different personalities work together to create a working team.
Each personality has its strengths and weaknesses. Individuals will perform better in a team context if they are given a role that plays to their strengths. The use of psychometric tools, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, may also help the P3 manager and team members understand and value the differences between individuals. Once assembled, teams do not simply become high-performing because they have been given a common objective. The P3 manager must be aware of where a team is in the development cycle and adjust the leadership style to suit.
This changing environment will alter the balance and dynamics of a team. Effective teamworking is a valuable commodity and needs constant nurturing by the P3 manager. Teamwork may be within a tightly integrated team or in a collaborative working group. In integrated teams, the emphasis is on the team developing together as a unit and working jointly on objectives.
Project The project environment is where the most close-knit teams will be found. The nature of a traditional project is that the ultimate deliverable is well defined and often broken down into a series of well-specified products.
The project manager must communicate details of the project deliverable to the team and how it will be achieved. All team members must be committed to the end product and understand their role in its development.
On larger projects, the project manager may delegate the development of component products to team managers. By implication, the project manager is delegating responsibility for team development as well, but must retain an overview of performance. The project manager is responsible for the continued cohesion of the team and should strive to keep individuals motivated and support them in their personal and career development aspirations.
While a common focus on a well-defined goal is an important tool for developing a team, it can also be a weakness. All projects are susceptible to change. Sometimes this is due to unavoidable external factors, but often it will be due to changing requirements from stakeholders. If the team is focused on a well-defined goal, constant change can be demotivating. In environments where change is frequent, or requirements need to be flexible, project managers may choose an Agile approach.
The levels of responsibility of the team members may mean that a collaborative working group approach is more relevant. While individual managers will take responsibility for the development of their own teams, the programme manager must create an overall team ethos for the programme as a whole.
Inevitably there will be a significant turnover rate within the programme team as projects are instigated and closed or as business-as-usual units go through the change management process.
Maintaining a team ethos across this broad, diverse and changing community will require excellent communication and leadership skills on the part of the programme manager. Portfolio The concept of teamworking will not be as visible in the portfolio dimension.
The intensity of human interaction associated with integrated teamworking is not present, other than in the core portfolio management team. The wider group of individuals with responsibility to deliver different parts of the portfolio form a collaborative team. It is in the interest of the portfolio manager that the appropriate type of teamworking is encouraged and exploited at all levels to maximise portfolio performance.
Collaborative and cooperative working within the portfolio with a shared vision of the strategic objectives should also be encouraged. The wisdom of teams. Margerison, C.
Team management: practical new approaches. Didcot: Management Books General All professions have similar features. Responsibility for developing and maintaining a profession occurs at three levels: institutional, organisational and individual. At the organisational level, companies, government departments and other types of organisations need to provide support and governance for all those involved in projects, programmes and portfolios.
This will include well-defined career paths, education programmes and communities of practice. At an individual level, those working as professionals on projects, programmes and portfolios need to take responsibility for their own development and behaviour.
Further reading Association for Project Management, APM code of professional conduct. General P3 professionals are often spread throughout an organisation and rarely form separate departments or functional areas. This combined with the continual movement of project and programme staff from team to team and location to location, means that those involved in projects and programmes are less able to learn from shared experience. Establishing a community of practice CoP enables P3 professionals to be part of a virtual department that shares experiences and contributes to improving future practice.
The three characteristics that are critical to a CoP are: 1. It may be very broad e. P3 management or more specific e. Membership implies a commitment to the domain. The members value their collective competence and learn from each other; 2. They build relationships that enable them to learn from each other; 3. There are a number of benefits to a CoP. Communities of practice can take many different forms. They should be constituted according to the needs of the organisation. They may be responsible for professionalism and take responsibility for learning and development, knowledge management and maturity development.
Others are simply informal communities of people who want to share experience. In order to make a difference, communities of practice need to be actively supported. Regular meetings, social media groups and events promote knowledge sharing and embed the sense of professionalism. Further reading McDermott, R. McDermott, R. Harnessing your staff's informal networks, Harvard Business Review, March Overseas Development Institute, Communities of practice: linking knowledge, policy and practice.
Wenger, E. Communities of practice: a brief introduction. Cultivating communities of practice: a guide to managing knowledge. General Within competence, knowledge is the theoretical understanding of a subject, skills are the practical manifestation of knowledge, and behaviour represents the personal attributes that control how an individual applies their knowledge and skill.
Competence and competency are widely used terms with many different interpretations. The terms are frequently used interchangeably, though the distinction can be made between a competency as a personal attribute of an individual and a competence as a statement of standards that can be demonstrated by performance and outputs. Competences are commonly broken down further into technical and behavioural competencies.
A technical competency may, for example, be the ability to use a particular scheduling technique e. A behavioural competency indicates how someone acts in specific circumstances e. Many organisations develop competence frameworks with a view to managing recruitment and professional development more effectively.
Such frameworks provide a structure which defines the individual competencies required by people working with that organisation, or part of the organisation.
In the P3 domain, such a framework should identify competencies for all aspects of P3 management which can then be used flexibly to build role descriptions to suit differing contexts and circumstances. The P3 manager can use a competence framework when forming a management team to define roles and then use competency-based interviewing techniques to identify the best person for each role.
Only the P3 manager can make decisions about how to utilise the range of human resources available. The value of competences and competence frameworks is that they provide an objective tool that helps define expectations for team and individual capability and performance.
Competences and competence frameworks should reflect the needs of the work, including those of stakeholders and sponsors, as well as those directly working on projects, programmes or portfolios. An ill-fitting, or not clearly specified, competence approach serves to hinder rather than help. This can lead to fairer and more transparent appraisal systems, and give a clear link between individual performance and project performance.
When designed or used inappropriately, they can be difficult to use, result in the expectation that everyone should behave in the same way, and fail to deliver on improvements in performance. Where an organisation wants to raise the overall capability of its workforce, it can use competency assessment to identify strengths and weaknesses at an organisational or individual level.
Such information is invaluable in establishing learning and development programmes. Competence frameworks can be designed in a number of ways. Some organisations develop their own bespoke framework, while others use existing external competence frameworks, in whole or in part. Regardless of how they are developed, competence frameworks are a key component of learning and development for individuals, and for developing the maturity of the organisation.
Further reading Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, Competence and competency frameworks. Franklin, M. Building project management capability through competency assessments. International Project Management Association, Spencer, L. Competence at work: models for superior performance.
Chichester: Wiley. General A key requirement of a profession is that individual members should act ethically. Trust and respect are vital to the success of anyone who wants to be regarded as a professional. This trust is gained by working consistently in a moral, legal and socially appropriate manner. It is reinforced by a commitment to act in accordance with a code of conduct. The latter will vary by location, culture and sector. The P3 manager needs to consider the ethics of the process by which deliverables are produced and the use to which they are to be or could be put.
A basic knowledge of ethical theory and how to resolve ethical dilemmas is needed in order to deal with these issues. The moral values of different stakeholders, as well as the relevant national and international laws, have to be understood. Personal and professional codes of conduct do not always align with those of the organisations involved in projects, programmes and portfolios and this can lead to conflict.
This can be achieved through training, taking part in workshops or issuing specific guidance. The most powerful way to ensure that teams and stakeholders understand and abide by the code is for the P3 manager to lead by example. If a professional believes that they have a conflict of interest, or difficulties with the ethics of their activities, then advice or direction should be sought from a relevant authority.
Society now demands increasing transparency and expects professionals to behave in an ethical manner. So the P3 manager needs to be able to take and explain ethical decisions in a way that maintains the commitment of all stakeholders. Business ethics: managing corporate citizenship and sustainability in the age of globalization.
Trevino, L. Managing business ethics: straight talk about how to do it right. Wiley: Chichester. General Within an organisation, learning and development needs are set by performance management. The gap between expectation and ability is normally addressed by planned learning and development programmes. These might involve a short-term response, e. The skills that need to be developed might be specifically job related, as in the use of a software tool or a management process, or aimed at a specific project, programme or portfolio-related qualification.
Organisations vary widely in their ability to deliver learning and development. A small organisation, however, will rely more on internal support and mentoring and provision by external providers.
The scope and timescale of individual work commitments will directly affect the nature of learning and the type of development activity. Most organisations will use a variety of approaches, selecting the right approach for their needs and those of their staff. P3 managers have a role in providing an environment that supports the learning and development of staff.
Individually, they will also be involved in performance reviews and suggestions for future career development. P3-based organisations and their managers realise the need to have a well- educated and skilled workforce. However, this does not mean that individuals can abrogate responsibility for their own continuing professional development CPD. This requires appropriate staff induction, career development plans, skills needs analysis, and development and training.
Organisations need to recognise that CPD for staff remains an overarching principle. P3 managers must recognise the need for individuals to undertake CPD to keep pace with changing standards, legislation, tools, techniques and methods.
Professional bodies play an important role by maintaining records of attendance and dossiers of CPD certificates for their members.
The learning and development needs of organisations, teams and individuals are in a constant state of flux as they attempt to meet the challenges and competitive forces of the marketplace. This requires a dynamic approach to learning and development, using all the tools available. Some aspects of P3 delivery do not fit neatly into these fundamentals. They are process-based topics e. These are collected together under the general title of management and have relationships with all the other six sections.
General The topics in this section do not directly address the fundamental components of scope, schedule, cost, risk, quality and resources.
The planning process has two functions. Firstly, it sets out the policies for managing the fundamental components. Secondly, it defines and estimates what needs to be done; how it should be done; and when it should be done. Control processes take the outputs of the planning process as a baseline and track what actually happens against what was planned to happen.
Control methods are normally focused on dealing with deviations from plan and attempting to return to plan. However, control also involves assessing whether to terminate work that is no longer viable. The planning and control processes create a large amount of information covering the content and governance of the work.
This information needs to be created, updated and communicated effectively for planning and controlling the work. The business case is the key document for projects and programmes. It states why they are worth the investment. Preparing a business case requires the summarisation and integration of information from all the components.
There are many people involved in a project, programme or portfolio. Some are directly involved in managing or performing the work, while others are simply affected by the work. Some have influence and others do not. The organisation topic describes the management team and its roles and responsibilities. The stakeholder management topic explains how people who are involved in, or affected by, the work in any way must be identified and engaged.
It evaluates the benefit, cost and risk of alternative options and provides a rationale for the preferred solution. General All projects and programmes must have a business case that demonstrates the value of the work. In the concept phase of the life cycle an outline business case is prepared that is then used by senior management to assess whether to give the go-ahead for the definition phase. The detailed business case is prepared during the latter phase.
The project or programme is owned by the sponsor, who has ultimate accountability for ensuring that the benefits are achieved. However, the project or programme manager will usually be responsible for preparing the business case, possibly with specialist support.
Once approved, the business case must be kept up to date, reflecting approved changes. In this way, it can be used as the primary document at gate reviews to determine if the work should continue. Project The content of the business case should be adapted to reflect the specific project requirements and context. Therefore, the sponsor and other members of senior management will require a greater level of detail within the business case to give them confidence.
Programme A programme business case must accommodate the greater uncertainty that exists in a programme environment. Whenever possible, it should provide justification for the programme based on quantifiable benefits, rather than broad assumptions of value. Programmes are usually broken down into tranches.
It can be useful to have a business case for each tranche. This ensures that, if the programme is terminated at the end of a tranche, those that have already been completed will have delivered some beneficial change. Programmes must monitor the interdependencies between projects and ensure that problems affecting one project that affect the business case of another, are identified and communicated. Similarly, the programme management team must ensure that factors occurring in business-as-usual are identified and communicated.
Portfolio Since a portfolio is not a stand-alone enterprise, but rather a collection of programmes, projects and business-as-usual elements, the portfolio does not require its own business case. The programmes and projects within it each have their own.
The business cases of the projects and programmes in the portfolio will be derived from the strategic objectives that the portfolio is designed to achieve. The portfolio management team will then use the business cases to categorise, prioritise and balance the portfolio.
Further reading Buttrick, R. The project workout: the ultimate handbook of project and programme management. Harlow: FT Prentice-Hall. HM Treasury, The green book.
Rogers, M. Engineering project appraisal. Oxford: Blackwell Science. General All six fundamental components of delivery need to be controlled. Some techniques, such as change control and quality control, are specific to one of the elements.
Others, such as earned value management, bring together multiple elements. Fundamentally, all techniques fall into three broad categories. Cybernetic control from the Greek for helmsman deals with routine progress tracking and corrective action. This is the central role of the P3 manager. In order to track progress, there must be a baseline against which to compare it. To do this effectively, the manager must have agreed tolerances within which the work can be managed.
Tolerances are acceptable deviations from the baseline plan. The sponsor and manager will then agree on the appropriate corrective action.
If the result is a major change to the work, then a new baseline may be agreed against which future performance is tracked. Green status means performance is within tolerances and predicted to remain there. Amber is within tolerances but predicted to exceed them. Red indicates performance has exceeded tolerances.
These are typically found at the end of a phase, stage or tranche of work and involve a major review of what has been delivered.
At these decision points, the sponsor considers the available information and decides whether to proceed with the remaining work. In extreme cases a project, programme, or even portfolio, may be terminated because it is no longer viable. Post-control is entirely backward-looking. It is concerned with learning from experience through, for example, post-project or post-programme reviews. The success of a project, programme or portfolio and the maturity of the organisation are both highly dependent upon the ability to establish and act upon lessons learned.
They are triggered, for example, by the end of a stage, or the end of a programme. An important event-driven control is the one triggered by progress that exceeds tolerances.
Time-driven techniques are more applicable to cybernetic control and involve weekly or monthly reports, periodic reviews or regular progress meetings. In some cases this work will be done by a support function, freeing the manager to concentrate on decision-making and implementing corrective action. Project For a project, the baselines for control will be the business case and the project management plan, i.
Control methods must then be appropriate to the scale, context and complexity of the project. On many small projects a simple slip chart, comparing actual progress with the baseline on a Gantt chart, will suffice. On large or complex projects where there is a well-defined scope, a more sophisticated method such as earned value management EVM may be needed.
EVM is a project-control process based on a structured approach to planning, cost collection and performance measurement. It is a process that provides benefits for the control of projects.
It facilitates the integration of project scope, time and cost objectives in the establishment of a planned schedule and budget baseline and provides the means for comparing the work completed against this baseline. Conventional scheduling, budgeting and cost management will inform the project manager what budget has been spent and what activities have been completed or are in progress. However, this does not provide a performance measure.
EVM provides this measure of performance and allows future performance to be predicted based on current variances and trends. On projects where time is of the essence and scope is flexible, the Agile approach is becoming increasingly popular. The MoSCoW technique prioritises requirements within each timebox.
No project will ever run strictly according to plan. A good plan will contain elements of contingency and management reserve that will cushion the effect of issues. Some of these reserves will be in the control of the project manager and others within the control of the project sponsor. The progress of a project will often be affected by external influences over which the project manager has no control.
This is where the project sponsor must provide help and support, and the relationship between the project manager and the project sponsor is vital to effective project control. Programme The programme management team do not manage individual projects or detailed change management activities. This is delegated to the project and change management teams. Defining tolerances is an important part of setting up control systems. These will govern whether something is dealt with at project level or programme level.
There will be activity that does not fall within projects or change management. These will include, for example, management of programme-level risks, communication and some procurement. These activities will be monitored against the programme management plan and corrective action taken where necessary. Although control is the responsibility of the programme manager, it is likely that a support function within the programme will perform the detailed work.
Portfolio Most of the control in a portfolio is delegated to the projects and programmes. As with any delegated authority, it is important to have clear boundaries and responsibilities.
Portfolio planning will identify activities for the management of risk, communication, quality, procurement etc. These will form part of the portfolio management plan and are not delegated. Therefore, they will be directly tracked and controlled by the portfolio management team. Portfolio management must also ensure that control methods are implemented consistently across the portfolio. If this is not done it can be difficult to aggregate data for the whole portfolio and construct an overall picture of progress.
The scale of portfolios will make a support function, such as a portfolio office, essential. This function will perform the data collection, analysis and reporting that enables the portfolio to be controlled.
In many cases, the portfolio office may perform the same function for the component programmes and projects. Home book online and pdf pdf download edition pdf the pdf best books. Free shipping. Be the first to write a review. Please note, the image is for illustrative purposes only, actual book cover, binding and edition may vary. If for some reason your order has not arrived within 21 Business days please get in contact with us so that we can help you.
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